Household Economic Analysis of the Effect of Contraceptive Demand on Fertility Outcomes in Ebonyi State, Nigeria
Keywords:
Contraceptive Demand, Fertility Outcomes, Poverty Reduction, Sustainable Development Goals, Ebonyi State
Abstract
This study investigated the effect of contraceptive demand on fertility outcomes in Ebonyi State, Nigeria and its associated economic implications at the household level. Relying on household survey data from 590 respondents across six local government areas, the study employed descriptive statistical analysis and multiple regression analysis. The result of descriptive analysis uncovered that 87.6% of respondents were aware of contraceptives, yet contraceptive usage remained limited. The average respondent desired 4.66 children but actually had 6.13 children, indicating a fertility gap. Most respondents (67.8%) resided in rural areas, 40.2% had secondary education, and 86.4% were employed. Notably, 65% lacked access to nearby family planning clinics, and the majority of households reported having children out of school. Multiple regression analysis result reveals a statistically significant negative relationship between contraceptive demand and fertility outcomes (β = -0.353, p = 0.040), indicating that increased contraceptive use leads to reduced fertility rates. Age of respondents (β = 0.092, p < 0.001) and desire for children (β = 0.329, p < 0.001) showed positive association with fertility, while urban residency (β = -0.904, p < 0.001), household head education (β = -0.021, p = 0.013), and household income (β = -3.901E-6, p < 0.01) demonstrated negative associations. The study further found that high fertility outcomes constitute a major albatross to household welfare and socioeconomic development. The study therefore recommends increased availability of subsidised modern contraceptives, particularly in rural areas, improved education, especially for women, addressing socio-cultural barriers to contraceptive use, amongst others. These interventions are essential for achieving Sustainable Development Goals 1, 3, and 5, promoting poverty reduction and improved maternal health outcomes.
References
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Nwakeze, N. (2006). The demand for children in Anambra State of Nigeria: A Logit Analysis. African Population Studies, 22(2).
Olubgenga-Bello, A.I., Abodunrin, O.L. & Adeomi, A.A. (2011). Contraceptive practices among women in rural communities in South-Western Nigeria. Global Journal of Medical Research, 11(2), 1-8. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332182607
Sanchez-paez & Ortega (2018). Adolescent contraceptive use and its effects on fertility. Demographic Research, 38(45), 1359–1388. https://doi.org.com/10.4054/DemRes.2018.38.45
Schultz, T.P. (2009). How does family planning promote development? Evidence from a social experiment in MATLAB, Bangladesh, 1977–1996. Mimeo Department of Economics, Yale University.
Ugwuozor, J. O., Nwakeze, N. M., & Odior, E. S., (2025). An economic assessment of the relationship between fertility outcomes and poverty incidence in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation Research, 4(1), 289–307.
Umeh, O. (2018). Research methodology. Akoka, Yaba, University of Lagos Press and Bookshop.
Undelikwo, V. A., Ikpi, N. E., & Bassey, G. E. (2023). Factors influencing contraceptive use among women of reproductive age in plantation farming communities in South-South Nigeria. African Journal of Reproductive Health, 27(2), 67-75. https://doi.org/10.29063/ajrh2023/v27i2.7
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Wright, K. O., Akinyinka, M. R., Fagbemi, T., Aderibigbe, A., Banke-Thomas, A., & Wusu, O. (2023). Contraceptive use and fertility control in rural and urban communities of Lagos Nigeria. Nigerian Postgraduate Medical Journal, 30(1), 31–39. https://doi.org/10.4103/npmj.npmj_268_22
Abeid, R. A., Sumari, E. I., Qin, C., Lyimo, A. A., &Luttaay, G. A. (2023). Uptake of modern contraceptive methods among women of reproductive age in Chake District-Pemba Tanzania: A descriptive cross-ectional study. Contraception and Reproductive Medicine, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40834-023-00234-y
Abiodun, O. M., & Balogun, O. R. (2009). Sexual activity and contraceptive use among young female students of tertiary educational institutions in Ilorin, Nigeria. Contraception, 79(2), 146–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2008.08.002
Agbutun, A. S., Iheonu, C. O., Anyanwu, O. C., & Ineghenehi, A. P. (2020). What determines fertility among women in Nigeria? A disaggregated analysis using Poisson regression. Economics Bulletin, 40(4), 3046-3060. https://EconPapers.repec.org/RePEc:ebl:ecbull:eb-20-00088
Becker, G. S. (1960). An economic analysis of fertility. NBER Chapters in: Demographic and economic change in developed countries. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 209-240. https://ideas.repec.org/h/nbr/nberch/2387.html
Blackstone, S.R. & Iwelunmor, J. (2017). Determinants of contraceptive use among Nigerian couples: Evidence from the 2013 Demographic and Health Survey. Contraceptive and Reproductive Medicine 2(9). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40834-017-0037-6
Bongaarts, J. (2017). The effect of contraceptive on fertility: Is Africa different? Demographic Research, 37(6), 129-146. https://doi.org/10.4054/demRes.2017.37.6
Cochran, W. G. (1977). Sampling techniques. 3rd Ed. New York. John Wiley & Sons.
Dasgupta, A., Wheldon, M., Kantorová, V., & Ueffing, P. (2022b). Contraceptive use and fertility transitions: The distinctive experience of sub-Saharan Africa. Demographic Research, 46, 97–130. https://doi.org/10.4054/demres.2022.46.4
Doepke, M., Hazan, M. & Maoz, Y. (2015). The baby boom and World War II: A macroeconomic Analysis. Review of Economic Studies, 82, 1031-1073. www.nber.org/papers/w13707.pdf
Easterlin, R. A., & Crimmins, E. M. (1987). The fertility revolution: A supply-demand analysis. Southern Economic Journal, 54(1), 238- 240. https://doi.org/10.2307/1058825
Effiong, U., Udonwa, U., & Ekpe, J. (2022). Fertility and population explosion in Nigeria: Does Income Actually Count? GPH-International Journal of Business Management, 5(07), 42-59. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6954432
Ekholuenetale, M., Owobi, O U. & Shisi, B T, (2022). Socioeconomic position in modern contraceptive uptake and fertility rate among women of childbearing age in 37 Sub-Saharan Countries. World, 3(4), 858 – 875. https://doi.org/10.3390/world3040048
Ezenwaka, U. (2021). Socio-demographic and economic determinants of awareness and use of contraceptives among adolescents in Ebonyi State, South-East, Nigeria. Pub Med, 25(3), 21- 29. https://doi.org.com/10.29063/ajrh2021/v25i3.3
Federal Republic of Nigeria. (2004). National policy on population for sustainable development. Lagos: Federal Ministry of Health
Federal Republic of Nigeria. (1988). National policy on population for development, unity, progress and self-reliance, Lagos: Federal Ministry of Health.
Götmark, F., & Andersson, M. (2020). Human fertility in relation to education, economy, religion, contraception, and family planning programs. BMC Public Health, 20(1), 265. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-8331-7
Griethuijsen, R.A.L.F., Eijck, M.W., Haste, H., Brok, P.J., Skinner, N.C. & Mansour, N. (2014). Global patterns in students’ views of science and interest in science. Research in Science Education, 45(4), 581-603. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-014-9438-6
Hardiman, M., & Midgley, J. (1982). The social dimensions of development: Social policy and planning in the third world. Population and Development Review, 9(1), 177. https://doi.org/10.2307/1972913
Kantorová, V. & Bongaarts, J. (2024). Contraceptive change and fertility transition. Population and Development Review, 50(2), 459–485. https://doi.org/10.1111/padr.12689
Kebede, A., Abaya, S. G., Merdassa, E., &Bekuma, T. T. (2019). Factors affecting demand for modern contraceptives among currently married reproductive age women in rural Kebeles of NunuKumba district, Oromia, Ethiopia. Contraception and Reproductive Medicine, 4(1), 21. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40834-019-0103-3
Leech, N. L, Gliner, J. A., Morgan, G. A., & Harmon, R. J. (2003). Use and interpretation of multiple regression. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 42(6), 738-740. https://doi.org/10.1097/01/CHI.0000046845.56865.22
Malthus, T. R. (1798). An essay on the principles of population. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Michael, T. O., & Odeyemi, M. A. (2017). Nigeria’s population Policies: Issues, challenges and prospects. Ibadan Journal of the Social Sciences, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.36108/ijss/7102.51.0101
Modigliani, F. & Brumberg, R.H. (1954). Utility analysis and the consumption function: An interpretation of cross-section data. In: Kurihara, K.K., (ed.). Post-Keynesian economics, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, 388-436.
Momsen, J.H. (2004). Gender and development. Psychology Press. London & New York Routledge.
National Bureau of Statistics, (2022). Demographic statistics bulletin 2021. Retrieved from: https://nigerianstat.gov.ng/elibrary/read/1241207
National Population Commission (NPC) [Nigeria] and ICF International, (2014). Nigeria demographic and health survey 2013. Abuja, Nigeria, and Rockville, Maryland, USA: NPC and ICF International.
National Population Commission (NPC) [Nigeria], and ICF International (2023). Nigeria demographic and survey 2023–24: Key indicators report. Abuja, Nigeria, and Rockville, Maryland, USA: NPC and ICF International.
National Population Commission, [NPC]. (2006). National policy on population for sustainable development. Abuja: Nigeria: National Population Commission.
Nwakeze, N. (2006). The demand for children in Anambra State of Nigeria: A Logit Analysis. African Population Studies, 22(2).
Olubgenga-Bello, A.I., Abodunrin, O.L. & Adeomi, A.A. (2011). Contraceptive practices among women in rural communities in South-Western Nigeria. Global Journal of Medical Research, 11(2), 1-8. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332182607
Sanchez-paez & Ortega (2018). Adolescent contraceptive use and its effects on fertility. Demographic Research, 38(45), 1359–1388. https://doi.org.com/10.4054/DemRes.2018.38.45
Schultz, T.P. (2009). How does family planning promote development? Evidence from a social experiment in MATLAB, Bangladesh, 1977–1996. Mimeo Department of Economics, Yale University.
Ugwuozor, J. O., Nwakeze, N. M., & Odior, E. S., (2025). An economic assessment of the relationship between fertility outcomes and poverty incidence in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation Research, 4(1), 289–307.
Umeh, O. (2018). Research methodology. Akoka, Yaba, University of Lagos Press and Bookshop.
Undelikwo, V. A., Ikpi, N. E., & Bassey, G. E. (2023). Factors influencing contraceptive use among women of reproductive age in plantation farming communities in South-South Nigeria. African Journal of Reproductive Health, 27(2), 67-75. https://doi.org/10.29063/ajrh2023/v27i2.7
UNESCO Institute for Statistics, (2022). Education and literacy data centre. Retrieved from: http://uis.unesco.org
United Nations [UN], (2015). Sustainable development goals. New York: UN. Available from: https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdgs
United Nations (2021). World social report: Reconsidering rural development. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs.
World Bank (2021). World development indicators. Washington DC: World Bank. Washington DC.
Wright, K. O., Akinyinka, M. R., Fagbemi, T., Aderibigbe, A., Banke-Thomas, A., & Wusu, O. (2023). Contraceptive use and fertility control in rural and urban communities of Lagos Nigeria. Nigerian Postgraduate Medical Journal, 30(1), 31–39. https://doi.org/10.4103/npmj.npmj_268_22
Published
2026-01-12
Section
Articles
